Detailed Framework of Key Theories in AP Psychology

Cognitive Development: Piaget's Stages

• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years): Infants learn about the world through their sensory and motor interactions. Key concepts include the development of object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen) and the beginning of goal-directed actions.

• Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols, but they do not yet understand concrete logic. This stage is marked by egocentrism (inability to see the world from others' perspectives), animism (belief that inanimate objects have life and feelings), and artificialism (belief that natural occurrences are created by humans).

• Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Children begin to think logically about concrete events. They understand the concepts of conservation (recognition that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape) and reversibility (understanding that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition).

• Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up): Adolescents develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, engage in systematic planning, and reason about hypothetical situations. This stage introduces the idea of the personal fable (belief in one’s own uniqueness and invincibility).

Moral Development: Kohlberg's Stages

• Preconventional Level: Morality is seen as external to the self, with a focus on avoiding punishment and maximizing rewards. Stage 1 involves obedience and punishment orientation, while Stage 2 revolves around individualism and exchange.

• Conventional Level: Individuals adhere to rules and conventions because of a belief in the social order. Stage 3 is about good interpersonal relationships, and Stage 4 is focused on maintaining the social order.

• Postconventional Level: Morality is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. People at this level have moved beyond society's norms to define their own moral codes. Stage 5 involves social contract and individual rights, and Stage 6 is about universal principles.

Sensory and Perception Theories

• Weber's Law: The principle that the difference threshold (or just noticeable difference, JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus value.

• Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: Proposes that the eye contains three types of color receptors, each sensitive to red, green, or blue. Colors are perceived through the stimulation of these receptors in combination.

• Opponent-Process Color Theory: Suggests that color perception is controlled by the activity of two opponent systems: a blue-yellow mechanism and a red-green mechanism. The theory explains color afterimages and the complexity of color perception.

• Place Theory: Posits that different areas of the cochlea are activated by different frequencies of sound, leading to the perception of pitch.

• Frequency Theory: Argues that the entire basilar membrane vibrates in unison with the sound wave, and the frequency of the sound wave is mirrored by the frequency of the auditory nerve signals.

Emotional and Behavioral Theories

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Suggests that sensory feedback from our facial expressions can affect our mood and emotions. According to this hypothesis, forcing a smile can actually make you feel happier.

• Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dreams are the result of the brain trying to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep. The brain synthesizes this activity with existing knowledge and memories to create a coherent story or dream.

• Thorndike's Law of Effect: Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur, and responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to recur. This principle is fundamental to the theory of operant conditioning.

• Premack Principle: A more preferred activity can be used as a reward for completing a less preferred activity. This principle is used in behavior modification programs.

Developmental and Social Psychology

• Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory: Outlines eight stages of human development, each characterized by a different crisis that must be resolved. Successful resolution of each crisis results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues.

• Kübler-Ross' Stages of Grieving: Describes five stages that individuals go through in response to the knowledge of their own terminal illnesses or the death of a loved one: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. These stages do not necessarily occur in order and can vary widely among individuals.

These detailed descriptions of key theories in AP Psychology offer a comprehensive understanding of important psychological concepts, spanning cognitive and moral development, sensory and perception processes, emotional and behavioral theories, as well as developmental and social psychology.

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Additional Key Theories in AP Psychology Detailed Framework

Developmental Theories

• Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Explores whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of distinct stages. This debate is central to understanding how people change over time.

• Nature vs. Nurture: Investigates the influence of genetics (nature) versus environment (nurture) on individual development, highlighting the complex interplay between inherent traits and external influences.

Memory Theories

• Serial Position Phenomenon: Suggests that when people are presented with a list of items, they're more likely to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) than those in the middle.

• Decay Theory: Proposes that memory fades over time due to the mere passage of time, unless it is actively rehearsed. This theory addresses why people forget information over time.

• Proactive and Retroactive Interference: Proactive interference occurs when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information. Retroactive interference happens when new information interferes with the recall of old information.

Language and Thought

• Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis): Suggests that the structure of a language affects its speakers' world view or cognition. Essentially, the way people think is strongly influenced by their native languages.

Motivation Theories

• Hull's Drive-Reduction Theory: Proposes that motivation arises from biological needs that demand satisfaction. People are driven to reduce these drives to maintain homeostasis.

• Cognitive Consistency Theory: Posits that people are motivated to maintain consistency among their cognitions, leading to efforts to reduce cognitive dissonance.

• Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Suggests that individuals experience discomfort (dissonance) from holding contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors and are motivated to reduce this dissonance.

• Arousal Theories: Highlight the importance of finding an optimal level of arousal. Too little can lead to boredom, and too much can lead to overwhelm.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Suggests there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, depicted as an inverted U-shaped curve; moderate arousal leads to optimal performance.

Emotion Theories

• James-Lange Theory: Proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience. Emotions are the result of physiological reactions to events.

• Cannon-Bard Theory: Argues that physiological reactions and emotional experiences occur simultaneously, but independently.

• Schachter's Two-Factor Theory: Suggests that emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal, depending on the context.

Stress and Health Psychology

• Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Describes the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress, encompassing three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

• Lazarus's Cognitive-Mediational Theory: Emphasizes appraisal as the key to understanding stress, proposing that stress is a product of the individual's appraisal of the stressor and the resources available to handle it.

Social Psychology Theories

• Attribution Theory: Examines how individuals infer the causes of others' behavior, distinguishing between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions.

• Deindividuation: Describes the loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in groups, which can lead to disinhibited behavior.

• Contact Theory: Suggests that under appropriate conditions, interpersonal contact is one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.

Attachment and Interpersonal Relationships

• Ainsworth's Strange Situation: A procedure developed to assess infants' patterns of attachment to their caregivers through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and a stranger.

This framework expands upon the initial list of theories covered in AP Psychology, providing a detailed overview of additional concepts related to development, memory, language, motivation, emotion, stress, social psychology, and attachment. Each theory offers insights into the complexities of human behavior and mental processes.